Nature of world

in 1964, the surgeon general of the united states issued a famous report concluding that cigarette smoke is a direct causes of lung cancer. and since 1966, every pack of cigarettes in the united states has carried a health warning. more recently, the major role of smoking in causing heart disease has been firmly

established. smoking has been conclusively linked to many others disease as well as, including bronchitis, emphysema, layne, cancer, and pancreatic cancer. there is also maubnting evidance that simply being exposed to other people's smoke increases the risk of lung disease, especially in children despite these deadly effects, however, about 35 percent of adult men and 25 percent of adult women in the united states smoke cigarettes, averaging one and a half packs a day for a nationl grand total of some 600 billion packs a year expartment of health and human services, cigarette smoking is generally viewed as the most important behaviral risk to health, it has became a central concern of health psychologists.

1. on the basis of practice the scope of accounting is vary wide, which can be explained as number:
2. trading corporation; every business organization has to use accounting system for the determination and to present as a proof of evidence.
3. non trading concern;the organization which is established to provide service not to earn profits also have to use account about to know incomes and expenditure and total assets and liabilities of that concern.
4. individual and professional organization: the accounting system is more practicable for individual to maintain total income and expenditure as well as professional incomes. for example doctors, lowyer,have to maintains it for this actual records.
5. government organization: government office have to use account to maintain their record about public revenue and expenditures.
   

long term debt means replacing short debt with securities of longer maturity. long term debt often is called funded debt it is one of major long term source of financing. the big firm can raise fund by selling long term bonds / debenture in the open market. debt holders becomes the creditor of the debt issuing company. there is a claim on firm' s income and assets as stated in the bond contract is called indenture. the right,facilities. obligation of are indicated in the indenture. the rights, facilities obligation of invastors are indicated in the indenture there are many types of long term debt instruments i.e. tern loan, debt secured and censecured notes marketable and non marketable debt and so on features of long term debt. feature of long term debts are as follows:

• the debt holder usually dose not have the right to vote.
• if the bonds go into default. the debt holder in effect taken control of the company.
• the debt holder does not participate in supervisor profit.
• interest payment on debts is debuctible as tax expenses.
• debt usually has a fixed maturity date.
  

1. priority to assets and earnings the common stockholders have a residual ownership claims on the earnings and assets of their corporation.
2. par value : the par value of each of the common stock in Nepal is rs 100.
3. authorized, issued and outstanding shares : the corporate charter of a company specific the number of authorized shares of common stock. the maximum that the company can issue without amending its charter. when the shares of common stock are sold. they become issued shares. all or some portion of shares is purchases and actually held by investors. which are called outstanding shares.
4. voting rights: common stockholders have right to vote in company affairs in most of common stock each shareholder can cost one vote for one share.
5. capital in excises of par value : found received in excises of par value who a firm sells of new stock is called additional paid in capital.
6. maturity: the company can't redeemed in the mid of the life of the organization.
7. retained earnings: retained earnings are the balance sheet account that indicates the total amount of earnings. the firms has not paid as dividend throughout its history. this earnings have been reinvested in the firm.
8. the book value par share: the book value of each common stock is the equal to common equity. consisting of the sum of common stock paid in capital and retained earnings divided by number of share outstanding.
   

trade is an integral part of commerce. it simply refers to sale , transfer or cxchange of goods andservices. it helps in making the goods and services available to ultimate. the manufacturers of who produce in bulk or large quantity generally find it very difficult to sell those goods directly to the consumers. the seasons may be distance of the consumers from the place of manufacturers, or the quantity, of the product bought at one point of time , the problem of payment and so on. hence they utlise the service of some. firms or individuals who buy goods from the manufacturers and sell it to the consumers. for example, the local grocery shop owner sells grocery items to the consumers after buying it from the manufacturers. sometimes he buys it from the wholesalers who buy goods in bulk from the manufacturers and sell it to him. it may be noted that the wholesaler as well as the grocery shop owners are said to be engaged in trading. thus, the features of trade can be summed up as follows:

• It involves actual buying and selling of goods.
• it refers to producing goods from one place person to sell it to another person or at another place.
• trades, also known as middleman facilitate the distribution of goods.
  
• trading helps equalising demand and supply. for example, the state of pamay be producing plenty of rice without much demand for it in its own state.